diff --git a/destrum/CMakeLists.txt b/destrum/CMakeLists.txt
index 40e93fd..c414c41 100644
--- a/destrum/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/destrum/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -64,6 +64,7 @@ set(SRC_FILES
         "src/Graphics/GfxDevice.cpp"
         "src/Graphics/Caches/ImageCache.cpp"
         "src/Graphics/ImageLoader.cpp"
+        "src/Graphics/IndirectDrawList.cpp"
         "src/Graphics/ImmediateExecuter.cpp"
         "src/Graphics/Init.cpp"
         "src/Graphics/Caches/MaterialCache.cpp"
@@ -232,6 +233,7 @@ if (SPIRV_VAL_EXECUTABLE)
         file(RELATIVE_PATH shader_relative "${ASSETS_SRC_DIR}" "${shader_source}")
         list(APPEND VALIDATE_SHADER_COMMANDS
                 COMMAND "${SPIRV_VAL_EXECUTABLE}"
+                --target-env vulkan1.3 --scalar-block-layout
                 "${ASSETS_RUNTIME_DIR}/${shader_relative}.spv")
     endforeach()
 
diff --git a/destrum/assets_src/shaders/instance_data.glsl b/destrum/assets_src/shaders/instance_data.glsl
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fa51e92
--- /dev/null
+++ b/destrum/assets_src/shaders/instance_data.glsl
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+#ifndef INSTANCE_DATA_GLSL
+#define INSTANCE_DATA_GLSL
+
+#extension GL_EXT_buffer_reference : require
+#extension GL_EXT_scalar_block_layout : require
+
+#include "vertex.glsl"
+
+// Must match GPUInstanceData in IndirectDrawList.h
+struct InstanceData {
+    mat4 transform;
+    VertexBuffer vertexBuffer;
+    uint materialID;
+    uint padding;
+};
+
+layout (buffer_reference, scalar) readonly buffer InstanceBuffer {
+    InstanceData instances[];
+};
+
+#endif // INSTANCE_DATA_GLSL
diff --git a/destrum/assets_src/shaders/mesh.frag b/destrum/assets_src/shaders/mesh.frag
index 27d306b..1497bb4 100644
--- a/destrum/assets_src/shaders/mesh.frag
+++ b/destrum/assets_src/shaders/mesh.frag
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ layout (location = 0) in vec3 inPos;
 layout (location = 1) in vec2 inUV;
 layout (location = 2) in vec3 inNormal;
 layout (location = 3) in vec4 inTangent;
+layout (location = 4) flat in uint inMaterialID;
 
 layout (location = 0) out vec4 outFragColor;
 
@@ -62,7 +63,7 @@ float calculateShadow(Light light, vec3 fragPos, vec3 geometryNormal)
 
 void main()
 {
-    MaterialData material = pcs.sceneData.materials.data[pcs.materialID];
+    MaterialData material = pcs.sceneData.materials.data[inMaterialID];
     uint samplerID = material.textureFilteringMode;
 
     vec4 diffuse = sampleTexture2D(material.diffuseTex, samplerID, inUV) * material.baseColor;
diff --git a/destrum/assets_src/shaders/mesh.vert b/destrum/assets_src/shaders/mesh.vert
index 0a4b25d..cbf1840 100644
--- a/destrum/assets_src/shaders/mesh.vert
+++ b/destrum/assets_src/shaders/mesh.vert
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ layout (location = 0) out vec3 outPos;
 layout (location = 1) out vec2 outUV;
 layout (location = 2) out vec3 outNormal;
 layout (location = 3) out vec4 outTangent;
+layout (location = 4) flat out uint outMaterialID;
 
 // The depth pre-pass reuses this shader, positions have to match bit for bit
 // so the main pass can depth test against it with LESS_OR_EQUAL
@@ -15,9 +16,11 @@ invariant gl_Position;
 
 void main()
 {
-    Vertex v = pcs.vertexBuffer.vertices[gl_VertexIndex];
+    // gl_InstanceIndex already includes the indirect command's firstInstance
+    InstanceData instance = pcs.instanceBuffer.instances[gl_InstanceIndex];
+    Vertex v = instance.vertexBuffer.vertices[gl_VertexIndex];
 
-    vec4 worldPos = pcs.transform * vec4(v.position, 1.0f);
+    vec4 worldPos = instance.transform * vec4(v.position, 1.0f);
 
     gl_Position = pcs.sceneData.viewProj * worldPos;
     outPos = worldPos.xyz;
@@ -25,9 +28,10 @@ void main()
     // A bit inefficient, but okay - this is needed for non-uniform scale
     // models. See: http://www.lighthouse3d.com/tutorials/glsl-12-tutorial/the-normal-matrix/
     // Simpler case, when everything is uniform
-    // outNormal = (pcs.transform * vec4(v.normal, 0.0)).xyz;
-    outNormal = mat3(transpose(inverse(pcs.transform))) * v.normal;
+    // outNormal = (instance.transform * vec4(v.normal, 0.0)).xyz;
+    outNormal = mat3(transpose(inverse(instance.transform))) * v.normal;
 
     // w is the bitangent sign, the fragment shader builds the TBN from the interpolated vectors
-    outTangent = vec4(mat3(pcs.transform) * v.tangent.xyz, v.tangent.w);
+    outTangent = vec4(mat3(instance.transform) * v.tangent.xyz, v.tangent.w);
+    outMaterialID = instance.materialID;
 }
diff --git a/destrum/assets_src/shaders/mesh_pcs.glsl b/destrum/assets_src/shaders/mesh_pcs.glsl
index bba8c1b..bdef682 100644
--- a/destrum/assets_src/shaders/mesh_pcs.glsl
+++ b/destrum/assets_src/shaders/mesh_pcs.glsl
@@ -2,14 +2,10 @@
 #extension GL_EXT_scalar_block_layout: require
 
 #include "scene_data.glsl"
-#include "vertex.glsl"
+#include "instance_data.glsl"
 
 layout (push_constant, scalar) uniform constants
 {
-    mat4 transform;
     SceneDataBuffer sceneData;
-    VertexBuffer vertexBuffer;
-    uint materialID;
-    uint padding;
+    InstanceBuffer instanceBuffer;
 } pcs;
-
diff --git a/destrum/assets_src/shaders/shadow.vert b/destrum/assets_src/shaders/shadow.vert
index 132454f..96fa57f 100644
--- a/destrum/assets_src/shaders/shadow.vert
+++ b/destrum/assets_src/shaders/shadow.vert
@@ -4,17 +4,18 @@
 #extension GL_EXT_buffer_reference : require
 #extension GL_EXT_scalar_block_layout : require
 
-#include "vertex.glsl"
+#include "instance_data.glsl"
 
 layout (push_constant, scalar) uniform constants
 {
-    mat4 modelToLightClip;
-    VertexBuffer vertexBuffer;
+    mat4 lightViewProj;
+    InstanceBuffer instanceBuffer;
 } pcs;
 
 void main()
 {
-    Vertex v = pcs.vertexBuffer.vertices[gl_VertexIndex];
+    InstanceData instance = pcs.instanceBuffer.instances[gl_InstanceIndex];
+    Vertex v = instance.vertexBuffer.vertices[gl_VertexIndex];
 
-    gl_Position = pcs.modelToLightClip * vec4(v.position, 1.0f);
+    gl_Position = pcs.lightViewProj * instance.transform * vec4(v.position, 1.0f);
 }
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Caches/MeshCache.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Caches/MeshCache.h
index 48b7fc2..b6cdfe8 100644
--- a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Caches/MeshCache.h
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Caches/MeshCache.h
@@ -16,12 +16,24 @@ public:
 
     MeshID addMesh(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const CPUMesh& cpuMesh);
     const GPUMesh& getMesh(MeshID id) const;
+    [[nodiscard]] const std::vector<GPUMesh>& getMeshes() const { return meshes; }
     const CPUMesh& getCPUMesh(MeshID id) const;
     [[nodiscard]] const std::string& getMeshKey(MeshID id) const;
     [[nodiscard]] std::optional<MeshID> findMeshByKey(std::string_view key) const;
 
+    [[nodiscard]] const GPUBuffer& getIndexBuffer() const { return indexBuffer; }
+    [[nodiscard]] std::uint32_t getIndexCount() const { return indexCount; }
+    [[nodiscard]] std::uint32_t getIndexCapacity() const { return indexCapacity; }
+
 private:
-    void uploadMesh(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const CPUMesh& cpuMesh, GPUMesh& gpuMesh) const;
+    void uploadMesh(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const CPUMesh& cpuMesh, GPUMesh& gpuMesh);
+    void ensureIndexCapacity(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, std::uint32_t requiredIndices);
+
+    static constexpr std::uint32_t InitialIndexCapacity = 1u << 20;
+
+    GPUBuffer indexBuffer;
+    std::uint32_t indexCount{0};
+    std::uint32_t indexCapacity{0};
 
     std::vector<GPUMesh> meshes;
     std::vector<CPUMesh> cpuMeshes;
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/IndirectDrawList.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/IndirectDrawList.h
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..308ef33
--- /dev/null
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/IndirectDrawList.h
@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+#ifndef INDIRECTDRAWLIST_H
+#define INDIRECTDRAWLIST_H
+
+#include <array>
+#include <cstddef>
+#include <cstdint>
+#include <vector>
+
+#include <glm/mat4x4.hpp>
+#include <vulkan/vulkan.h>
+
+#include <destrum/Graphics/FrameConfig.h>
+#include <destrum/Graphics/Frustum.h>
+#include <destrum/Graphics/MeshDrawCommand.h>
+#include <destrum/Graphics/Resources/Buffer.h>
+
+class GfxDevice;
+struct GPUMesh;
+
+// Must match InstanceData in instance_data.glsl
+struct GPUInstanceData {
+    glm::mat4 transform;
+    VkDeviceAddress vertexBuffer;
+    std::uint32_t materialId;
+    std::uint32_t padding;
+};
+static_assert(sizeof(GPUInstanceData) == 80);
+
+class IndirectDrawList {
+public:
+    struct View {
+        std::uint32_t firstCommand{0};
+        std::uint32_t commandCount{0};
+        std::uint32_t instanceCount{0};
+    };
+
+    enum class Filter {
+        All,
+        ShadowCasters,
+    };
+
+    void cleanup(GfxDevice& gfxDevice);
+
+    void begin(std::uint32_t frameIndex);
+
+    View addView(
+        const std::vector<GPUMesh>& meshes,
+        const std::vector<MeshDrawCommand>& drawCommands,
+        const std::vector<std::size_t>& sortedDrawCommands,
+        const Frustum& frustum,
+        Filter filter);
+
+    void upload(GfxDevice& gfxDevice);
+
+    void draw(VkCommandBuffer cmd, const GPUBuffer& indexBuffer, const View& view) const;
+
+    [[nodiscard]] VkDeviceAddress getInstanceBufferAddress() const;
+
+    [[nodiscard]] const std::vector<GPUInstanceData>& getInstances() const { return instances; }
+    [[nodiscard]] const std::vector<VkDrawIndexedIndirectCommand>& getCommands() const { return commands; }
+
+private:
+    struct PerFrameBuffers {
+        GPUBuffer instances;
+        GPUBuffer commands;
+        std::size_t instanceCapacity{0};
+        std::size_t commandCapacity{0};
+    };
+
+    static constexpr std::size_t InitialInstanceCapacity = 1024;
+    static constexpr std::size_t InitialCommandCapacity = 256;
+
+    std::array<PerFrameBuffers, FRAMES_IN_FLIGHT> frames{};
+    std::uint32_t currentFrame{0};
+
+    std::vector<GPUInstanceData> instances;
+    std::vector<VkDrawIndexedIndirectCommand> commands;
+};
+
+#endif // INDIRECTDRAWLIST_H
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Managers/VulkanInstanceManager.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Managers/VulkanInstanceManager.h
index 96c67c0..e0f5d78 100644
--- a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Managers/VulkanInstanceManager.h
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Managers/VulkanInstanceManager.h
@@ -27,6 +27,8 @@ public:
         VkPhysicalDeviceFeatures device{
             .imageCubeArray = VK_TRUE,
             .geometryShader = VK_TRUE,
+            .multiDrawIndirect = VK_TRUE,
+            .drawIndirectFirstInstance = VK_TRUE,
             .depthClamp = VK_TRUE,
             .fillModeNonSolid = VK_TRUE,
             .samplerAnisotropy = VK_TRUE,
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Pipelines/MeshPipeline.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Pipelines/MeshPipeline.h
index 7feec65..d71e7db 100644
--- a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Pipelines/MeshPipeline.h
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Pipelines/MeshPipeline.h
@@ -9,9 +9,8 @@
 #include <vulkan/vulkan.h>
 
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Pipeline.h>
-#include <destrum/Graphics/Camera.h>
+#include <destrum/Graphics/IndirectDrawList.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Resources/Buffer.h>
-#include <destrum/Graphics/MeshDrawCommand.h>
 
 class GfxDevice;
 class RenderResources;
@@ -31,19 +30,17 @@ public:
         VkCommandBuffer cmd,
         VkExtent2D renderExtent,
         const RenderResources& resources,
-        const Camera& camera,
         const GPUBuffer& sceneDataBuffer,
-        const std::vector<MeshDrawCommand>& drawCommands,
-        const std::vector<std::size_t>& sortedDrawCommands);
+        const IndirectDrawList& drawList,
+        const IndirectDrawList::View& view);
 
     void draw(
         VkCommandBuffer cmd,
         VkExtent2D renderExtent,
         const RenderResources& resources,
-        const Camera& camera,
         const GPUBuffer& sceneDataBuffer,
-        const std::vector<MeshDrawCommand>& drawCommands,
-        const std::vector<std::size_t>& sortedDrawCommands);
+        const IndirectDrawList& drawList,
+        const IndirectDrawList::View& view);
 
     void cleanup(VkDevice device);
 
@@ -57,11 +54,8 @@ public:
 
 private:
     struct PushConstants {
-        glm::mat4 transform;
         VkDeviceAddress sceneDataBuffer;
-        VkDeviceAddress vertexBuffer;
-        std::uint32_t materialId;
-        std::uint32_t padding;
+        VkDeviceAddress instanceBuffer;
     };
 
     void drawMeshes(
@@ -69,10 +63,9 @@ private:
         const Pipeline& pipeline,
         VkExtent2D renderExtent,
         const RenderResources& resources,
-        const Camera& camera,
         const GPUBuffer& sceneDataBuffer,
-        const std::vector<MeshDrawCommand>& drawCommands,
-        const std::vector<std::size_t>& sortedDrawCommands);
+        const IndirectDrawList& drawList,
+        const IndirectDrawList::View& view);
 
 private:
     VkPipelineLayout m_pipelineLayout{VK_NULL_HANDLE};
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Pipelines/ShadowMapPipeline.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Pipelines/ShadowMapPipeline.h
index 4949e32..ae62bc4 100644
--- a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Pipelines/ShadowMapPipeline.h
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Pipelines/ShadowMapPipeline.h
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Light.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Pipeline.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/ids.h>
-#include <destrum/Graphics/MeshDrawCommand.h>
+#include <destrum/Graphics/IndirectDrawList.h>
 
 class GfxDevice;
 struct GPUImage;
@@ -32,15 +32,15 @@ public:
     void drawDirectionalShadow(
         VkCommandBuffer cmd,
         const RenderResources& resources,
-        const std::vector<MeshDrawCommand>& drawCommands,
-        const std::vector<std::size_t>& sortedDrawCommands,
+        const IndirectDrawList& drawList,
+        const IndirectDrawList::View& view,
         const glm::mat4& lightViewProj);
 
     void drawSpotShadows(
         VkCommandBuffer cmd,
         const RenderResources& resources,
-        const std::vector<MeshDrawCommand>& drawCommands,
-        const std::vector<std::size_t>& sortedDrawCommands,
+        const IndirectDrawList& drawList,
+        const std::vector<IndirectDrawList::View>& views,
         const std::vector<glm::mat4>& lightViewProjs);
 
     [[nodiscard]] glm::mat4 calculateDirectionalViewProj(const glm::vec3& lightDirection, const glm::vec3& center) const;
@@ -57,8 +57,8 @@ public:
 private:
     struct PushConstants
     {
-        glm::mat4 modelToLightClip;
-        VkDeviceAddress vertexBuffer;
+        glm::mat4 lightViewProj;
+        VkDeviceAddress instanceBuffer;
     };
 
     void beginDepthRendering(VkCommandBuffer cmd, const RenderResources& resources, const GPUImage& depthImage);
@@ -67,8 +67,8 @@ private:
     void drawShadowCasters(
         VkCommandBuffer cmd,
         const RenderResources& resources,
-        const std::vector<MeshDrawCommand>& drawCommands,
-        const std::vector<std::size_t>& sortedDrawCommands,
+        const IndirectDrawList& drawList,
+        const IndirectDrawList::View& view,
         const glm::mat4& lightViewProj);
 
     VkPipelineLayout m_pipelineLayout{VK_NULL_HANDLE};
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Renderer.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Renderer.h
index 4f35216..f154522 100644
--- a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Renderer.h
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Renderer.h
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@
 #include <glm/vec3.hpp>
 
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Camera.h>
+#include <destrum/Graphics/IndirectDrawList.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Light.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Pipelines/LightCullingPipeline.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Pipelines/LineRenderingPass.h>
@@ -29,6 +30,15 @@
 class GameRenderer
 {
 public:
+    struct DrawStats
+    {
+        std::uint32_t meshDraws{0};
+        std::uint32_t indirectCommands{0};
+        std::uint32_t instances{0};
+        std::uint32_t mainViewCommands{0};
+        std::uint32_t mainViewInstances{0};
+    };
+
     struct SceneData
     {
         const Camera& camera;
@@ -106,6 +116,8 @@ public:
         return resources;
     }
 
+    [[nodiscard]] const DrawStats& getDrawStats() const { return lastDrawStats; }
+
     void draw2D(
         VkCommandBuffer cmd,
         GfxDevice& gfxDevice,
@@ -125,6 +137,8 @@ private:
 
     std::vector<MeshDrawCommand> meshDrawCommands;
     std::vector<std::size_t> sortedMeshDrawCommands;
+    IndirectDrawList drawList;
+    DrawStats lastDrawStats;
 
     VkFormat drawImageFormat{VK_FORMAT_R16G16B16A16_SFLOAT};
     VkFormat depthImageFormat{VK_FORMAT_D32_SFLOAT};
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Resources/Mesh.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Resources/Mesh.h
index d4ddbdc..b3cac83 100644
--- a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Resources/Mesh.h
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Resources/Mesh.h
@@ -20,10 +20,11 @@
 
 struct GPUMesh {
     GPUBuffer vertexBuffer;
-    GPUBuffer indexBuffer;
 
     std::uint32_t numVertices{0};
     std::uint32_t numIndices{0};
+    // offset into MeshCache::getIndexBuffer(), every mesh shares that one index buffer
+    std::uint32_t firstIndex{0};
 
     // AABB
     glm::vec3 minPos;
diff --git a/destrum/src/App.cpp b/destrum/src/App.cpp
index b5e6a30..b297321 100644
--- a/destrum/src/App.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/App.cpp
@@ -208,6 +208,13 @@ if (!isRunning) break;
                 if (ImGui::Begin("Debug", &m_DebugWindows.stats))
                 {
                     ImGui::Text("FPS: %.2f", avgFPS);
+
+                    const auto& stats = renderer.getDrawStats();
+                    ImGui::SeparatorText("Meshes");
+                    ImGui::Text("Submitted meshes: %u", stats.meshDraws);
+                    ImGui::Text("Camera: %u indirect draws, %u instances", stats.mainViewCommands, stats.mainViewInstances);
+                    ImGui::Text("All views: %u indirect draws, %u instances", stats.indirectCommands, stats.instances);
+                    ImGui::Text("Pending GPU deletions: %zu", gfxDevice.getPendingDeletionCount());
                 }
                 ImGui::End();
             }
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/IndirectDrawList.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/IndirectDrawList.cpp
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b43532a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/IndirectDrawList.cpp
@@ -0,0 +1,175 @@
+#include <destrum/Graphics/IndirectDrawList.h>
+
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <cassert>
+#include <cstring>
+
+#include <volk.h>
+
+#include <tracy/Tracy.hpp>
+
+#include <destrum/Graphics/GfxDevice.h>
+#include <destrum/Graphics/Resources/Mesh.h>
+#include <destrum/Graphics/Util.h>
+
+namespace {
+    std::size_t grownCapacity(std::size_t current, std::size_t initial, std::size_t required)
+    {
+        std::size_t capacity = std::max(current, initial);
+        while (capacity < required) {
+            capacity *= 2;
+        }
+        return capacity;
+    }
+}
+
+void IndirectDrawList::cleanup(GfxDevice& gfxDevice)
+{
+    for (auto& frame : frames) {
+        gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(frame.instances);
+        gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(frame.commands);
+        frame.instanceCapacity = 0;
+        frame.commandCapacity = 0;
+    }
+    instances.clear();
+    commands.clear();
+}
+
+void IndirectDrawList::begin(std::uint32_t frameIndex)
+{
+    assert(frameIndex < FRAMES_IN_FLIGHT);
+    currentFrame = frameIndex;
+    instances.clear();
+    commands.clear();
+}
+
+IndirectDrawList::View IndirectDrawList::addView(
+    const std::vector<GPUMesh>& meshes,
+    const std::vector<MeshDrawCommand>& drawCommands,
+    const std::vector<std::size_t>& sortedDrawCommands,
+    const Frustum& frustum,
+    Filter filter)
+{
+    ZoneScopedN("IndirectDrawList::addView");
+
+    View view{
+        .firstCommand = static_cast<std::uint32_t>(commands.size()),
+    };
+    MeshID batchMesh = NULL_MESH_ID;
+
+    const auto addDraw = [&](const MeshDrawCommand& dc)
+    {
+        if (filter == Filter::ShadowCasters && !dc.castShadow) {
+            return;
+        }
+        if (!edge::isInFrustum(frustum, dc.worldBoundingSphere)) {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        assert(dc.meshId < meshes.size());
+        assert(dc.materialId != NULL_MATERIAL_ID);
+        const GPUMesh& mesh = meshes[dc.meshId];
+
+        // Draws arrive sorted by mesh, so every run of the same mesh becomes one
+        // instanced command. Each instance carries its own transform, material and
+        // vertex buffer (skinned meshes point at their own skinned copy).
+        if (dc.meshId != batchMesh) {
+            batchMesh = dc.meshId;
+            commands.push_back(VkDrawIndexedIndirectCommand{
+                .indexCount = mesh.numIndices,
+                .instanceCount = 0,
+                .firstIndex = mesh.firstIndex,
+                .vertexOffset = 0,
+                .firstInstance = static_cast<std::uint32_t>(instances.size()),
+            });
+            ++view.commandCount;
+        }
+
+        instances.push_back(GPUInstanceData{
+            .transform = dc.transformMatrix,
+            .vertexBuffer = dc.skinnedMesh != nullptr
+                                ? dc.skinnedMesh->skinnedVertexBuffer.address
+                                : mesh.vertexBuffer.address,
+            .materialId = dc.materialId,
+            .padding = 0,
+        });
+        ++commands.back().instanceCount;
+        ++view.instanceCount;
+    };
+
+    if (!sortedDrawCommands.empty()) {
+        for (std::size_t drawIndex : sortedDrawCommands) {
+            assert(drawIndex < drawCommands.size());
+            addDraw(drawCommands[drawIndex]);
+        }
+    } else {
+        for (const MeshDrawCommand& dc : drawCommands) {
+            addDraw(dc);
+        }
+    }
+
+    return view;
+}
+
+void IndirectDrawList::upload(GfxDevice& gfxDevice)
+{
+    ZoneScopedN("IndirectDrawList::upload");
+
+    PerFrameBuffers& frame = frames[currentFrame];
+
+    // Growing is cheap thanks to the deletion queue: the old buffer may still be
+    // read by this slot's previous frame, so it is retired instead of destroyed.
+    if (instances.size() > frame.instanceCapacity || frame.instances.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
+        gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(frame.instances);
+        frame.instanceCapacity = grownCapacity(frame.instanceCapacity, InitialInstanceCapacity, instances.size());
+        frame.instances = gfxDevice.createBuffer(
+            frame.instanceCapacity * sizeof(GPUInstanceData),
+            VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_SHADER_DEVICE_ADDRESS_BIT,
+            VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_CPU_TO_GPU);
+        vkutil::addDebugLabel(gfxDevice.getDevice(), frame.instances.buffer, "mesh instances");
+    }
+
+    if (commands.size() > frame.commandCapacity || frame.commands.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
+        gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(frame.commands);
+        frame.commandCapacity = grownCapacity(frame.commandCapacity, InitialCommandCapacity, commands.size());
+        frame.commands = gfxDevice.createBuffer(
+            frame.commandCapacity * sizeof(VkDrawIndexedIndirectCommand),
+            VK_BUFFER_USAGE_INDIRECT_BUFFER_BIT,
+            VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_CPU_TO_GPU);
+        vkutil::addDebugLabel(gfxDevice.getDevice(), frame.commands.buffer, "mesh indirect commands");
+    }
+
+    // Each frame in flight has its own buffers, so nothing on the GPU is reading
+    // these while we write. vkQueueSubmit makes the host writes visible to the GPU.
+    if (!instances.empty()) {
+        std::memcpy(frame.instances.info.pMappedData, instances.data(), instances.size() * sizeof(GPUInstanceData));
+        gfxDevice.getMemoryManager().flushAllocation(frame.instances, 0, instances.size() * sizeof(GPUInstanceData));
+    }
+    if (!commands.empty()) {
+        std::memcpy(frame.commands.info.pMappedData, commands.data(), commands.size() * sizeof(VkDrawIndexedIndirectCommand));
+        gfxDevice.getMemoryManager().flushAllocation(frame.commands, 0, commands.size() * sizeof(VkDrawIndexedIndirectCommand));
+    }
+}
+
+void IndirectDrawList::draw(VkCommandBuffer cmd, const GPUBuffer& indexBuffer, const View& view) const
+{
+    if (view.commandCount == 0) {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    const PerFrameBuffers& frame = frames[currentFrame];
+    assert(frame.commands.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE && "IndirectDrawList::upload must run before draw");
+
+    vkCmdBindIndexBuffer(cmd, indexBuffer.buffer, 0, VK_INDEX_TYPE_UINT32);
+    vkCmdDrawIndexedIndirect(
+        cmd,
+        frame.commands.buffer,
+        static_cast<VkDeviceSize>(view.firstCommand) * sizeof(VkDrawIndexedIndirectCommand),
+        view.commandCount,
+        sizeof(VkDrawIndexedIndirectCommand));
+}
+
+VkDeviceAddress IndirectDrawList::getInstanceBufferAddress() const
+{
+    return frames[currentFrame].instances.address;
+}
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/MeshCache.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/MeshCache.cpp
index d558b2a..6bfa8fb 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/MeshCache.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/MeshCache.cpp
@@ -49,15 +49,73 @@ MeshID MeshCache::addMesh(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const CPUMesh& cpuMesh)
     return id;
 }
 
-void MeshCache::uploadMesh(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const CPUMesh& cpuMesh, GPUMesh& gpuMesh) const
+void MeshCache::ensureIndexCapacity(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, std::uint32_t requiredIndices)
+{
+    if (requiredIndices <= indexCapacity) {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    std::uint32_t newCapacity = std::max(indexCapacity, InitialIndexCapacity);
+    while (newCapacity < requiredIndices) {
+        newCapacity *= 2;
+    }
+
+    GPUBuffer newBuffer = gfxDevice.createBuffer(
+        static_cast<std::size_t>(newCapacity) * sizeof(std::uint32_t),
+        VK_BUFFER_USAGE_INDEX_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT,
+        VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_DEVICE);
+    vkutil::addDebugLabel(gfxDevice.getDevice(), newBuffer.buffer, "mesh indices");
+
+    if (indexCount > 0) {
+        try {
+            gfxDevice.immediateSubmit([&](VkCommandBuffer cmd) {
+                const VkBufferMemoryBarrier2 previousCopies{
+                    .sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER_2,
+                    .srcStageMask = VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_COPY_BIT,
+                    .srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_2_TRANSFER_WRITE_BIT,
+                    .dstStageMask = VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_COPY_BIT,
+                    .dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_2_TRANSFER_READ_BIT,
+                    .srcQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED,
+                    .dstQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED,
+                    .buffer = indexBuffer.buffer,
+                    .offset = 0,
+                    .size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE,
+                };
+                const VkDependencyInfo dependency{
+                    .sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_DEPENDENCY_INFO,
+                    .bufferMemoryBarrierCount = 1,
+                    .pBufferMemoryBarriers = &previousCopies,
+                };
+                vkCmdPipelineBarrier2(cmd, &dependency);
+
+                const VkBufferCopy copy{
+                    .srcOffset = 0,
+                    .dstOffset = 0,
+                    .size = static_cast<VkDeviceSize>(indexCount) * sizeof(std::uint32_t),
+                };
+                vkCmdCopyBuffer(cmd, indexBuffer.buffer, newBuffer.buffer, 1, &copy);
+            });
+        } catch (...) {
+            gfxDevice.destroyBufferNow(newBuffer);
+            throw;
+        }
+    }
+
+    // frames in flight were recorded with the old buffer, the deletion queue keeps it alive for them
+    gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(indexBuffer);
+    indexBuffer = newBuffer;
+    indexCapacity = newCapacity;
+}
+
+void MeshCache::uploadMesh(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const CPUMesh& cpuMesh, GPUMesh& gpuMesh)
 {
     try {
-    // create index buffer
+    const auto numIndices = static_cast<std::uint32_t>(cpuMesh.indices.size());
+    ensureIndexCapacity(gfxDevice, indexCount + numIndices);
+    gpuMesh.firstIndex = indexCount;
+
     const auto indexBufferSize = cpuMesh.indices.size() * sizeof(std::uint32_t);
-    gpuMesh.indexBuffer = gfxDevice.createBuffer(
-        indexBufferSize,
-        VK_BUFFER_USAGE_INDEX_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT,
-        VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_DEVICE);
+    const auto indexBufferOffset = static_cast<VkDeviceSize>(gpuMesh.firstIndex) * sizeof(std::uint32_t);
 
     // create vertex buffer
     const auto vertexBufferSize = cpuMesh.vertices.size() * sizeof(CPUMesh::Vertex);
@@ -81,6 +139,8 @@ void MeshCache::uploadMesh(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const CPUMesh& cpuMesh, GPUMesh
         memcpy(static_cast<char*>(vertexIndexData) + vertexBufferSize, cpuMesh.indices.data(), indexBufferSize);
         gfxDevice.getMemoryManager().flushAllocation(vertexIndexStaging);
 
+        // Writing into the shared index buffer is safe while frames are in flight:
+        // this range is new, they only read the ranges of meshes added before it.
         gfxDevice.immediateSubmit([&](VkCommandBuffer cmd) {
         vkutil::bufferHostWriteToTransferReadBarrier(
             cmd,
@@ -97,17 +157,17 @@ void MeshCache::uploadMesh(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const CPUMesh& cpuMesh, GPUMesh
 
         const auto indexCopy = VkBufferCopy{
             .srcOffset = vertexBufferSize,
-            .dstOffset = 0,
+            .dstOffset = indexBufferOffset,
             .size = indexBufferSize,
         };
-        vkCmdCopyBuffer(cmd, vertexIndexStaging.buffer, gpuMesh.indexBuffer.buffer, 1, &indexCopy);
+        vkCmdCopyBuffer(cmd, vertexIndexStaging.buffer, indexBuffer.buffer, 1, &indexCopy);
 
         const std::array<VkBufferMemoryBarrier2, 2> destinationBarriers{{
             {
                 .sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER_2,
                 .srcStageMask = VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_COPY_BIT,
                 .srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_2_TRANSFER_WRITE_BIT,
-                .dstStageMask = VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_VERTEX_SHADER_BIT,
+                .dstStageMask = VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_VERTEX_SHADER_BIT | VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_COMPUTE_SHADER_BIT,
                 .dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_2_SHADER_STORAGE_READ_BIT,
                 .srcQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED,
                 .dstQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED,
@@ -119,13 +179,13 @@ void MeshCache::uploadMesh(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const CPUMesh& cpuMesh, GPUMesh
                 .sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER_2,
                 .srcStageMask = VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_COPY_BIT,
                 .srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_2_TRANSFER_WRITE_BIT,
-                .dstStageMask = VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_VERTEX_INPUT_BIT,
-                .dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_2_INDEX_READ_BIT,
+                .dstStageMask = VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_INDEX_INPUT_BIT | VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_COPY_BIT,
+                .dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_2_INDEX_READ_BIT | VK_ACCESS_2_TRANSFER_READ_BIT,
                 .srcQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED,
                 .dstQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED,
-                .buffer = gpuMesh.indexBuffer.buffer,
-                .offset = 0,
-                .size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE,
+                .buffer = indexBuffer.buffer,
+                .offset = indexBufferOffset,
+                .size = indexBufferSize,
             }
         }};
         const VkDependencyInfo destinationDependency{
@@ -141,11 +201,10 @@ void MeshCache::uploadMesh(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const CPUMesh& cpuMesh, GPUMesh
     }
 
     gfxDevice.destroyBufferNow(vertexIndexStaging);
+    indexCount += numIndices;
 
     const auto vtxBufferName = cpuMesh.name + " (vtx)";
-    const auto idxBufferName = cpuMesh.name + " (idx)";
     vkutil::addDebugLabel(gfxDevice.getDevice(), gpuMesh.vertexBuffer.buffer, vtxBufferName.c_str());
-    vkutil::addDebugLabel(gfxDevice.getDevice(), gpuMesh.indexBuffer.buffer, idxBufferName.c_str());
 
     if (gpuMesh.hasSkeleton) {
         // create skinning data buffer
@@ -214,7 +273,6 @@ void MeshCache::uploadMesh(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const CPUMesh& cpuMesh, GPUMesh
     } catch (...) {
         gfxDevice.destroyBufferNow(gpuMesh.skinningDataBuffer);
         gfxDevice.destroyBufferNow(gpuMesh.vertexBuffer);
-        gfxDevice.destroyBufferNow(gpuMesh.indexBuffer);
         gpuMesh = {};
         throw;
     }
@@ -246,8 +304,11 @@ std::optional<MeshID> MeshCache::findMeshByKey(std::string_view key) const
 
 void MeshCache::cleanup(GfxDevice& gfxDevice)
 {
+    gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(indexBuffer);
+    indexCount = 0;
+    indexCapacity = 0;
+
     for (auto& mesh : meshes) {
-        gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(mesh.indexBuffer);
         gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(mesh.vertexBuffer);
         gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(mesh.skinningDataBuffer);
     }
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/MeshPipeline.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/MeshPipeline.cpp
index 3455db7..b4985b7 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/MeshPipeline.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/MeshPipeline.cpp
@@ -8,7 +8,6 @@
 #include <destrum/Graphics/GfxDevice.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/RenderResources.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Caches/MeshCache.h>
-#include <destrum/Graphics/Frustum.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Util.h>
 
 #include "volk.h"
@@ -119,10 +118,9 @@ void MeshPipeline::drawDepthPrepass(
     VkCommandBuffer cmd,
     VkExtent2D renderExtent,
     const RenderResources& resources,
-    const Camera& camera,
     const GPUBuffer& sceneDataBuffer,
-    const std::vector<MeshDrawCommand>& drawCommands,
-    const std::vector<std::size_t>& sortedDrawCommands)
+    const IndirectDrawList& drawList,
+    const IndirectDrawList::View& view)
 {
     if (!m_depthPrepassPipeline)
     {
@@ -134,20 +132,18 @@ void MeshPipeline::drawDepthPrepass(
         *m_depthPrepassPipeline,
         renderExtent,
         resources,
-        camera,
         sceneDataBuffer,
-        drawCommands,
-        sortedDrawCommands);
+        drawList,
+        view);
 }
 
 void MeshPipeline::draw(
     VkCommandBuffer cmd,
     VkExtent2D renderExtent,
     const RenderResources& resources,
-    const Camera& camera,
     const GPUBuffer& sceneDataBuffer,
-    const std::vector<MeshDrawCommand>& drawCommands,
-    const std::vector<std::size_t>& sortedDrawCommands)
+    const IndirectDrawList& drawList,
+    const IndirectDrawList::View& view)
 {
     if (!m_pipeline)
     {
@@ -159,10 +155,9 @@ void MeshPipeline::draw(
         *m_pipeline,
         renderExtent,
         resources,
-        camera,
         sceneDataBuffer,
-        drawCommands,
-        sortedDrawCommands);
+        drawList,
+        view);
 }
 
 void MeshPipeline::drawMeshes(
@@ -170,13 +165,10 @@ void MeshPipeline::drawMeshes(
     const Pipeline& pipeline,
     VkExtent2D renderExtent,
     const RenderResources& resources,
-    const Camera& camera,
     const GPUBuffer& sceneDataBuffer,
-    const std::vector<MeshDrawCommand>& drawCommands,
-    const std::vector<std::size_t>& sortedDrawCommands)
+    const IndirectDrawList& drawList,
+    const IndirectDrawList::View& view)
 {
-    const MeshCache& meshCache = resources.meshes();
-
     pipeline.bind(cmd);
 
     resources.bindBindlessDescSet(cmd, m_pipelineLayout);
@@ -204,86 +196,32 @@ void MeshPipeline::drawMeshes(
         m_renderWireframe ? VK_POLYGON_MODE_LINE : VK_POLYGON_MODE_FILL
     );
 
-    MeshID prevMeshId = NULL_MESH_ID;
-    int actualDrawCalls = 0;
-
-    const auto frustum = edge::createFrustumFromCamera(camera);
-
-    const auto drawOne = [&](const MeshDrawCommand& dc)
-    {
-        if (!edge::isInFrustum(frustum, dc.worldBoundingSphere))
-        {
-            return;
-        }
-
-        ++actualDrawCalls;
-
-        const auto& mesh = meshCache.getMesh(dc.meshId);
-
-        const std::string& meshKey = meshCache.getMeshKey(dc.meshId);
-        vkutil::cmdBeginLabelFormatted(
-            cmd,
-            vkutil::labelColors::draw,
-            "%s [mesh %zu, material %u%s]",
-            meshKey.empty() ? "Mesh" : meshKey.c_str(),
-            dc.meshId,
-            dc.materialId,
-            dc.skinnedMesh != nullptr ? ", skinned" : "");
-
-        if (dc.meshId != prevMeshId)
-        {
-            prevMeshId = dc.meshId;
-
-            vkCmdBindIndexBuffer(
-                cmd,
-                mesh.indexBuffer.buffer,
-                0,
-                VK_INDEX_TYPE_UINT32
-            );
-        }
-
-        assert(dc.materialId != NULL_MATERIAL_ID);
-
-        const auto pushConstants = PushConstants{
-            .transform = dc.transformMatrix,
-            .sceneDataBuffer = sceneDataBuffer.address,
-            .vertexBuffer =
-            dc.skinnedMesh != nullptr
-                ? dc.skinnedMesh->skinnedVertexBuffer.address
-                : mesh.vertexBuffer.address,
-            .materialId = dc.materialId,
-            .padding = 0,
-        };
-
-        vkCmdPushConstants(
-            cmd,
-            m_pipelineLayout,
-            VK_SHADER_STAGE_VERTEX_BIT | VK_SHADER_STAGE_FRAGMENT_BIT,
-            0,
-            sizeof(PushConstants),
-            &pushConstants
-        );
-
-        vkCmdDrawIndexed(cmd, mesh.numIndices, 1, 0, 0, 0);
-
-        vkutil::cmdEndLabel(cmd);
+    // The same for every draw, per-draw data (transform, material, vertex buffer)
+    // lives in the instance buffer and is looked up with gl_InstanceIndex
+    const auto pushConstants = PushConstants{
+        .sceneDataBuffer = sceneDataBuffer.address,
+        .instanceBuffer = drawList.getInstanceBufferAddress(),
     };
 
-    if (!sortedDrawCommands.empty())
-    {
-        for (std::size_t drawIndex : sortedDrawCommands)
-        {
-            assert(drawIndex < drawCommands.size());
-            drawOne(drawCommands[drawIndex]);
-        }
-    }
-    else
-    {
-        for (const MeshDrawCommand& dc : drawCommands)
-        {
-            drawOne(dc);
-        }
-    }
+    vkCmdPushConstants(
+        cmd,
+        m_pipelineLayout,
+        VK_SHADER_STAGE_VERTEX_BIT | VK_SHADER_STAGE_FRAGMENT_BIT,
+        0,
+        sizeof(PushConstants),
+        &pushConstants
+    );
+
+    vkutil::cmdBeginLabelFormatted(
+        cmd,
+        vkutil::labelColors::draw,
+        "%u indirect draws, %u instances",
+        view.commandCount,
+        view.instanceCount);
+
+    drawList.draw(cmd, resources.meshes().getIndexBuffer(), view);
+
+    vkutil::cmdEndLabel(cmd);
 }
 
 void MeshPipeline::cleanup(VkDevice device)
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/ShadowMapPipeline.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/ShadowMapPipeline.cpp
index bf66af9..f2bed53 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/ShadowMapPipeline.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/ShadowMapPipeline.cpp
@@ -12,7 +12,6 @@
 #include <destrum/Graphics/GfxDevice.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/RenderResources.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Caches/MeshCache.h>
-#include <destrum/Graphics/Frustum.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Util.h>
 
 #include "volk.h"
@@ -206,8 +205,8 @@ float ShadowMapPipeline::getNormalOffset() const
 void ShadowMapPipeline::drawDirectionalShadow(
     VkCommandBuffer cmd,
     const RenderResources& resources,
-    const std::vector<MeshDrawCommand>& drawCommands,
-    const std::vector<std::size_t>& sortedDrawCommands,
+    const IndirectDrawList& drawList,
+    const IndirectDrawList::View& view,
     const glm::mat4& lightViewProj)
 {
     if (!m_pipeline || shadowMapId == NULL_IMAGE_ID)
@@ -219,15 +218,15 @@ void ShadowMapPipeline::drawDirectionalShadow(
 
     beginDepthRendering(cmd, resources, shadowMap);
     setRenderRegion(cmd, VkRect2D{.offset = {}, .extent = shadowMap.getExtent2D()});
-    drawShadowCasters(cmd, resources, drawCommands, sortedDrawCommands, lightViewProj);
+    drawShadowCasters(cmd, resources, drawList, view, lightViewProj);
     endDepthRendering(cmd, shadowMap);
 }
 
 void ShadowMapPipeline::drawSpotShadows(
     VkCommandBuffer cmd,
     const RenderResources& resources,
-    const std::vector<MeshDrawCommand>& drawCommands,
-    const std::vector<std::size_t>& sortedDrawCommands,
+    const IndirectDrawList& drawList,
+    const std::vector<IndirectDrawList::View>& views,
     const std::vector<glm::mat4>& lightViewProjs)
 {
     if (!m_pipeline || spotShadowAtlasId == NULL_IMAGE_ID || lightViewProjs.empty())
@@ -236,6 +235,7 @@ void ShadowMapPipeline::drawSpotShadows(
     }
 
     assert(lightViewProjs.size() <= MAX_SPOT_SHADOWS);
+    assert(views.size() == lightViewProjs.size());
     const auto& spotShadowAtlas = resources.getImage(spotShadowAtlasId);
 
     beginDepthRendering(cmd, resources, spotShadowAtlas);
@@ -244,7 +244,7 @@ void ShadowMapPipeline::drawSpotShadows(
         vkutil::cmdBeginLabelFormatted(cmd, vkutil::labelColors::shadow, "Spot shadow %u", shadowIndex);
 
         setRenderRegion(cmd, spotShadowTileRegion(shadowIndex));
-        drawShadowCasters(cmd, resources, drawCommands, sortedDrawCommands, lightViewProjs[shadowIndex]);
+        drawShadowCasters(cmd, resources, drawList, views[shadowIndex], lightViewProjs[shadowIndex]);
 
         vkutil::cmdEndLabel(cmd);
     }
@@ -306,73 +306,31 @@ void ShadowMapPipeline::setRenderRegion(VkCommandBuffer cmd, const VkRect2D& reg
 void ShadowMapPipeline::drawShadowCasters(
     VkCommandBuffer cmd,
     const RenderResources& resources,
-    const std::vector<MeshDrawCommand>& drawCommands,
-    const std::vector<std::size_t>& sortedDrawCommands,
+    const IndirectDrawList& drawList,
+    const IndirectDrawList::View& view,
     const glm::mat4& lightViewProj)
 {
-    const MeshCache& meshCache = resources.meshes();
-    const Frustum lightFrustum = edge::createFrustumFromViewProj(lightViewProj);
-    MeshID previousMeshId = NULL_MESH_ID;
-
-    const auto drawCaster = [&](const MeshDrawCommand& dc)
-    {
-        if (!dc.castShadow || !edge::isInFrustum(lightFrustum, dc.worldBoundingSphere))
-        {
-            return;
-        }
-
-        const auto& mesh = meshCache.getMesh(dc.meshId);
-
-        const std::string& meshKey = meshCache.getMeshKey(dc.meshId);
-        vkutil::cmdBeginLabelFormatted(
-            cmd,
-            vkutil::labelColors::draw,
-            "%s [mesh %zu, material %u%s]",
-            meshKey.empty() ? "Mesh" : meshKey.c_str(),
-            dc.meshId,
-            dc.materialId,
-            dc.skinnedMesh != nullptr ? ", skinned" : "");
-
-        if (dc.meshId != previousMeshId)
-        {
-            previousMeshId = dc.meshId;
-            vkCmdBindIndexBuffer(cmd, mesh.indexBuffer.buffer, 0, VK_INDEX_TYPE_UINT32);
-        }
-
-        const auto pushConstants = PushConstants{
-            .modelToLightClip = lightViewProj * dc.transformMatrix,
-            .vertexBuffer =
-                dc.skinnedMesh != nullptr
-                    ? dc.skinnedMesh->skinnedVertexBuffer.address
-                    : mesh.vertexBuffer.address,
-        };
-
-        vkCmdPushConstants(
-            cmd,
-            m_pipelineLayout,
-            VK_SHADER_STAGE_VERTEX_BIT,
-            0,
-            sizeof(PushConstants),
-            &pushConstants);
-
-        vkCmdDrawIndexed(cmd, mesh.numIndices, 1, 0, 0, 0);
-
-        vkutil::cmdEndLabel(cmd);
+    const auto pushConstants = PushConstants{
+        .lightViewProj = lightViewProj,
+        .instanceBuffer = drawList.getInstanceBufferAddress(),
     };
 
-    if (!sortedDrawCommands.empty())
-    {
-        for (std::size_t drawIndex : sortedDrawCommands)
-        {
-            assert(drawIndex < drawCommands.size());
-            drawCaster(drawCommands[drawIndex]);
-        }
-    }
-    else
-    {
-        for (const MeshDrawCommand& dc : drawCommands)
-        {
-            drawCaster(dc);
-        }
-    }
+    vkCmdPushConstants(
+        cmd,
+        m_pipelineLayout,
+        VK_SHADER_STAGE_VERTEX_BIT,
+        0,
+        sizeof(PushConstants),
+        &pushConstants);
+
+    vkutil::cmdBeginLabelFormatted(
+        cmd,
+        vkutil::labelColors::draw,
+        "%u indirect draws, %u instances",
+        view.commandCount,
+        view.instanceCount);
+
+    drawList.draw(cmd, resources.meshes().getIndexBuffer(), view);
+
+    vkutil::cmdEndLabel(cmd);
 }
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/Renderer.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/Renderer.cpp
index c2699ae..4818006 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/Renderer.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/Renderer.cpp
@@ -79,22 +79,14 @@ void GameRenderer::endDrawing()
     sortedMeshDrawCommands.resize(meshDrawCommands.size());
     std::iota(sortedMeshDrawCommands.begin(), sortedMeshDrawCommands.end(), 0);
 
+    // Grouping by mesh lets IndirectDrawList merge each run into one instanced draw.
+    // Material and vertex buffer are per instance, so they don't break a batch.
     std::stable_sort(
         sortedMeshDrawCommands.begin(),
         sortedMeshDrawCommands.end(),
         [this](std::size_t left, std::size_t right)
         {
-            const auto& lhs = meshDrawCommands[left];
-            const auto& rhs = meshDrawCommands[right];
-            if (lhs.meshId != rhs.meshId)
-            {
-                return lhs.meshId < rhs.meshId;
-            }
-            if (lhs.materialId != rhs.materialId)
-            {
-                return lhs.materialId < rhs.materialId;
-            }
-            return (lhs.skinnedMesh != nullptr) < (rhs.skinnedMesh != nullptr);
+            return meshDrawCommands[left].meshId < meshDrawCommands[right].meshId;
         });
 }
 
@@ -147,6 +139,55 @@ void GameRenderer::draw(VkCommandBuffer cmd, GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const Camera&
         spotShadowViewProjs.push_back(spotShadow.lightViewProj);
     }
 
+    // Culling stays on the CPU: every view (camera, directional light, each spot light)
+    // gets its own range of indirect commands in this frame's draw list.
+    IndirectDrawList::View mainView;
+    IndirectDrawList::View directionalShadowView;
+    std::vector<IndirectDrawList::View> spotShadowViews;
+    {
+        ZoneScopedN("Build Indirect Draws");
+
+        const auto& meshes = resources->meshes().getMeshes();
+        drawList.begin(gfxDevice.getCurrentFrameIndex());
+
+        mainView = drawList.addView(
+            meshes,
+            meshDrawCommands,
+            sortedMeshDrawCommands,
+            edge::createFrustumFromCamera(camera),
+            IndirectDrawList::Filter::All);
+
+        if (shadowLightDirection)
+        {
+            directionalShadowView = drawList.addView(
+                meshes,
+                meshDrawCommands,
+                sortedMeshDrawCommands,
+                edge::createFrustumFromViewProj(lightViewProj),
+                IndirectDrawList::Filter::ShadowCasters);
+        }
+
+        spotShadowViews.reserve(spotShadowViewProjs.size());
+        for (const glm::mat4& spotViewProj : spotShadowViewProjs)
+        {
+            spotShadowViews.push_back(drawList.addView(
+                meshes,
+                meshDrawCommands,
+                sortedMeshDrawCommands,
+                edge::createFrustumFromViewProj(spotViewProj),
+                IndirectDrawList::Filter::ShadowCasters));
+        }
+
+        drawList.upload(gfxDevice);
+        lastDrawStats = DrawStats{
+            .meshDraws = static_cast<std::uint32_t>(meshDrawCommands.size()),
+            .indirectCommands = static_cast<std::uint32_t>(drawList.getCommands().size()),
+            .instances = static_cast<std::uint32_t>(drawList.getInstances().size()),
+            .mainViewCommands = mainView.commandCount,
+            .mainViewInstances = mainView.instanceCount,
+        };
+    }
+
     // TODO: there has to be a better way to do this
     const auto gpuSceneData = GPUSceneData{
         .view = sceneData.camera.GetViewMatrix(),
@@ -225,8 +266,8 @@ void GameRenderer::draw(VkCommandBuffer cmd, GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const Camera&
         shadowMapPipeline->drawDirectionalShadow(
             cmd,
             *resources,
-            meshDrawCommands,
-            sortedMeshDrawCommands,
+            drawList,
+            directionalShadowView,
             lightViewProj);
     }
 
@@ -238,8 +279,8 @@ void GameRenderer::draw(VkCommandBuffer cmd, GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const Camera&
         shadowMapPipeline->drawSpotShadows(
             cmd,
             *resources,
-            meshDrawCommands,
-            sortedMeshDrawCommands,
+            drawList,
+            spotShadowViews,
             spotShadowViewProjs);
     }
 
@@ -260,10 +301,9 @@ void GameRenderer::draw(VkCommandBuffer cmd, GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const Camera&
             cmd,
             drawImage.getExtent2D(),
             *resources,
-            camera,
             sceneDataBuffer.getBuffer(),
-            meshDrawCommands,
-            sortedMeshDrawCommands);
+            drawList,
+            mainView);
 
         vkCmdEndRendering(cmd);
     }
@@ -319,10 +359,9 @@ void GameRenderer::draw(VkCommandBuffer cmd, GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const Camera&
             cmd,
             drawImage.getExtent2D(),
             *resources,
-            camera,
             sceneDataBuffer.getBuffer(),
-            meshDrawCommands,
-            sortedMeshDrawCommands);
+            drawList,
+            mainView);
     }
 
     {
@@ -400,6 +439,7 @@ void GameRenderer::cleanup(GfxDevice& gfxDevice)
         meshPipeline->cleanup(device);
 
     sceneDataBuffer.cleanup(gfxDevice);
+    drawList.cleanup(gfxDevice);
 
     // if (drawImageId != NULL_IMAGE_ID)
     // gfxDevice.destroyImage();