diff --git a/destrum/CMakeLists.txt b/destrum/CMakeLists.txt
index 72b36ce..40e93fd 100644
--- a/destrum/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/destrum/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -58,6 +58,7 @@ set(SRC_FILES
         "src/Graphics/BindlessSetManager.cpp"
         "src/Graphics/Camera.cpp"
         "src/Graphics/DebugDraw.cpp"
+        "src/Graphics/DeletionQueue.cpp"
         "src/Graphics/ComputePipeline.cpp"
         "src/Graphics/Frustum.cpp"
         "src/Graphics/GfxDevice.cpp"
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Caches/ImageCache.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Caches/ImageCache.h
index b4fb5f9..d4d8394 100644
--- a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Caches/ImageCache.h
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Caches/ImageCache.h
@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@
 #pragma once
 
 #include <filesystem>
+#include <memory>
 #include <unordered_map>
 #include <vector>
 
@@ -28,6 +29,7 @@ public:
     ImageID addImage(GPUImage image);
     ImageID addImage(ImageID id, GPUImage image);
     [[nodiscard]] const GPUImage& getImage(ImageID id) const;
+    void removeImage(ImageID id);
 
     [[nodiscard]] ImageID getFreeImageId() const;
     [[nodiscard]] std::uint32_t getMaxImageCount() const {
@@ -52,6 +54,7 @@ public:
 
 private:
     std::vector<GPUImage> images;
+    std::shared_ptr<std::vector<ImageID>> freeIds = std::make_shared<std::vector<ImageID>>();
     GfxDevice& gfxDevice;
 
     struct LoadedImageInfo {
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Caches/MaterialCache.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Caches/MaterialCache.h
index 7f61fff..636c575 100644
--- a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Caches/MaterialCache.h
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Caches/MaterialCache.h
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ public:
 
 
     Material& getMaterialMutable(MaterialID id);
-    void updateMaterialGPU(MaterialID id);
+    [[nodiscard]] MaterialData getMaterialData(MaterialID id) const;
 
 private:
     [[nodiscard]] MaterialData toMaterialData(const Material& material) const;
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/DeletionQueue.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/DeletionQueue.h
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..402347a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/DeletionQueue.h
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+#ifndef DELETIONQUEUE_H
+#define DELETIONQUEUE_H
+
+#include <cstddef>
+#include <cstdint>
+#include <deque>
+#include <functional>
+
+class DeletionQueue {
+public:
+    void push(std::uint64_t retiredInFrame, std::function<void()>&& deleter);
+
+    void flush(std::uint64_t lastCompletedFrame);
+
+    void flushAll();
+
+    [[nodiscard]] std::size_t size() const { return entries.size(); }
+    [[nodiscard]] bool empty() const { return entries.empty(); }
+
+private:
+    struct Entry {
+        std::uint64_t frame;
+        std::function<void()> deleter;
+    };
+
+    std::deque<Entry> entries;
+};
+
+#endif // DELETIONQUEUE_H
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/FrameConfig.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/FrameConfig.h
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56dcb30
--- /dev/null
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/FrameConfig.h
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+#ifndef FRAMECONFIG_H
+#define FRAMECONFIG_H
+
+#include <cstdint>
+
+inline constexpr std::uint32_t FRAMES_IN_FLIGHT = 2;
+
+#endif // FRAMECONFIG_H
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/GfxDevice.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/GfxDevice.h
index 0ed3b04..094ee98 100644
--- a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/GfxDevice.h
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/GfxDevice.h
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@
 #include <glm/vec2.hpp>
 #include <glm/vec4.hpp>
 
+#include <destrum/Graphics/DeletionQueue.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/GPUImage.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Swapchain.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Resources/Buffer.h>
@@ -113,7 +114,8 @@ public:
         return memoryManager.createBuffer(allocSize, usage, memoryUsage);
     }
 
-    void destroyBuffer(GPUBuffer& buffer) const
+    void destroyBuffer(GPUBuffer& buffer);
+    void destroyBufferNow(GPUBuffer& buffer) const
     {
         memoryManager.destroyBuffer(buffer);
     }
@@ -148,11 +150,24 @@ public:
         imageManager.uploadImageData(image, pixelData, byteSize, layer);
     }
 
-    void destroyImage(GPUImage& image) const
+    void destroyImage(GPUImage& image);
+    void destroyImageNow(GPUImage& image) const
     {
         imageManager.destroyImage(image);
     }
 
+    void deferDestroy(std::function<void()>&& deleter);
+
+    [[nodiscard]] std::uint64_t getFrameNumber() const
+    {
+        return frameManager.getFrameNumber();
+    }
+
+    [[nodiscard]] std::size_t getPendingDeletionCount() const
+    {
+        return deletionQueue.size();
+    }
+
     [[nodiscard]] VkDevice getVkDevice() const
     {
         return instanceManager.getDevice();
@@ -228,6 +243,7 @@ private:
     ImageManager imageManager;
 
     VulkanImmediateExecutor executor;
+    DeletionQueue deletionQueue;
 
     Swapchain swapchain;
     VkFormat swapchainFormat{VK_FORMAT_UNDEFINED};
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Managers/FrameManager.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Managers/FrameManager.h
index e591d65..f33b8fb 100644
--- a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Managers/FrameManager.h
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Managers/FrameManager.h
@@ -6,6 +6,8 @@
 
 #include <vulkan/vulkan.h>
 
+#include <destrum/Graphics/FrameConfig.h>
+
 class FrameManager {
 public:
     struct FrameData {
@@ -27,10 +29,12 @@ public:
     [[nodiscard]] VkCommandBuffer beginFrame();
     void endFrame(VkCommandBuffer cmd);
 
-    void waitIdle() const;
-
     [[nodiscard]] std::uint32_t getCurrentFrameIndex() const {
-        return frameNumber % 2;
+        return static_cast<std::uint32_t>(frameNumber % FRAMES_IN_FLIGHT);
+    }
+
+    [[nodiscard]] std::uint64_t getFrameNumber() const {
+        return frameNumber;
     }
 
     [[nodiscard]] FrameData& getCurrentFrame() {
@@ -48,9 +52,8 @@ public:
     void nextFrame();
 
 private:
-    static constexpr std::size_t FRAMES_IN_FLIGHT = 2;
     std::array<FrameData, FRAMES_IN_FLIGHT> frames{};
-    std::uint32_t frameNumber{0};
+    std::uint64_t frameNumber{0};
     VkDevice device{VK_NULL_HANDLE};
 };
 
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/RenderResources.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/RenderResources.h
index 7cdb960..b858850 100644
--- a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/RenderResources.h
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/RenderResources.h
@@ -46,6 +46,7 @@ public:
         TextureIntent intent = TextureIntent::ColorSrgb);
 
     ImageID addImageToCache(GPUImage image);
+    void destroyImage(ImageID id);
 
     // Imports a file-backed model and uploads its mesh/material resources.
     // References are keyed as "source#subresource" in the resource caches.
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Renderer.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Renderer.h
index a1c41e5..4f35216 100644
--- a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Renderer.h
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Renderer.h
@@ -65,7 +65,6 @@ public:
 
     void setSkyboxTexture(ImageID skyboxImageId);
 
-    void flushMaterialUpdates(GfxDevice& gfxDevice);
 
     [[nodiscard]] SkinningPipeline& getSkinningPipeline() const
     {
@@ -119,6 +118,8 @@ private:
 
     RenderResources* resources = nullptr;
 
+    void recordMaterialUpdates(VkCommandBuffer cmd);
+
     std::vector<MaterialID> pendingMaterialUploads;
 
 
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Swapchain.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Swapchain.h
index d373a34..a7e1312 100644
--- a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Swapchain.h
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Swapchain.h
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
 
 #include <VkBootstrap.h>
 
-static constexpr int FRAMES_IN_FLIGHT = 2;
+#include <destrum/Graphics/FrameConfig.h>
 
 class Swapchain {
 public:
diff --git a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Util.h b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Util.h
index 65bbce6..2cd383e 100644
--- a/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Util.h
+++ b/destrum/include/destrum/Graphics/Util.h
@@ -83,6 +83,18 @@ namespace vkutil {
         VkDeviceSize offset = 0,
         VkDeviceSize size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE);
 
+    void bufferShaderReadToTransferWriteBarrier(
+        VkCommandBuffer cmd,
+        VkBuffer buffer,
+        VkDeviceSize offset = 0,
+        VkDeviceSize size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE);
+
+    void bufferHostAndTransferWriteToShaderReadBarrier(
+        VkCommandBuffer cmd,
+        VkBuffer buffer,
+        VkDeviceSize offset = 0,
+        VkDeviceSize size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE);
+
     void bufferHostWriteToTransferReadBarrier(
         VkCommandBuffer cmd,
         VkBuffer buffer,
diff --git a/destrum/src/App.cpp b/destrum/src/App.cpp
index 6308217..b5e6a30 100644
--- a/destrum/src/App.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/App.cpp
@@ -331,8 +331,6 @@ if (!isRunning) break;
             }
         }
     }
-
-    gfxDevice.waitIdle();
 }
 
 void App::cleanup()
@@ -355,6 +353,10 @@ void App::cleanup()
         }
     };
 
+    // The one place we wait for the GPU on shutdown: the cleanup calls below destroy
+    // pipelines and other objects directly, which is only valid once nothing is in flight.
+    attempt([this] { gfxDevice.waitIdle(); });
+
     if (customInitStarted) {
         attempt([this] { customCleanup(); });
     }
diff --git a/destrum/src/Components/MeshRendererComponent.cpp b/destrum/src/Components/MeshRendererComponent.cpp
index 9f69609..b917717 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Components/MeshRendererComponent.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Components/MeshRendererComponent.cpp
@@ -47,7 +47,6 @@ void MeshRendererComponent::Destroy()
 {
     if (m_skinnedMesh && GameState::GetInstance().HasGfxDevice()) {
         auto& gfxDevice = GameState::GetInstance().Gfx();
-        gfxDevice.waitIdle();
         gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(m_skinnedMesh->skinnedVertexBuffer);
     }
     m_skinnedMesh.reset();
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/Caches/ImageCache.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/Caches/ImageCache.cpp
index 03793c4..8de5fb7 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/Caches/ImageCache.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/Caches/ImageCache.cpp
@@ -1,8 +1,9 @@
-#include <../../include/destrum/Graphics/Caches/ImageCache.h>
+#include <destrum/Graphics/Caches/ImageCache.h>
 
 #include <destrum/Graphics/GfxDevice.h>
 
 #include "spdlog/spdlog.h"
+#include <algorithm>
 #include <limits>
 #include <stdexcept>
 
@@ -57,7 +58,7 @@ ImageID ImageCache::loadImageFromFile(
         if (infoInserted) {
             loadedImagesInfo.erase(id);
         }
-        gfxDevice.destroyImage(image);
+        gfxDevice.destroyImageNow(image);
         throw;
     }
 }
@@ -66,7 +67,7 @@ ImageID ImageCache::addImage(GPUImage image) {
     try {
         return addImage(getFreeImageId(), std::move(image));
     } catch (...) {
-        gfxDevice.destroyImage(image);
+        gfxDevice.destroyImageNow(image);
         throw;
     }
 }
@@ -82,6 +83,10 @@ ImageID ImageCache::addImage(ImageID id, GPUImage image) {
     try {
         image.setBindlessId(static_cast<std::uint32_t>(id));
 
+        if (const auto it = std::find(freeIds->begin(), freeIds->end(), id); it != freeIds->end()) {
+            freeIds->erase(it);
+        }
+
         if (id < images.size()) {
             gfxDevice.destroyImage(images[id]);
             images[id] = std::move(image);
@@ -97,17 +102,35 @@ ImageID ImageCache::addImage(ImageID id, GPUImage image) {
 
         return id;
     } catch (...) {
-        gfxDevice.destroyImage(image);
+        gfxDevice.destroyImageNow(image);
         throw;
     }
 }
 
+void ImageCache::removeImage(ImageID id) {
+    if (id >= images.size() || images[id].image == VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    loadedImagesInfo.erase(id);
+    gfxDevice.destroyImage(images[id]);
+
+    // In-flight frames may still sample this bindless slot, so it only becomes
+    // reusable once they are done. freeIds is shared so the deleter can outlive the cache.
+    gfxDevice.deferDestroy([freeIds = freeIds, id] {
+        freeIds->push_back(id);
+    });
+}
+
 const GPUImage& ImageCache::getImage(ImageID id) const {
     assert(id != NULL_IMAGE_ID && id < images.size());
     return images.at(id);
 }
 
 ImageID ImageCache::getFreeImageId() const {
+    if (!freeIds->empty()) {
+        return freeIds->back();
+    }
     if (images.size() >= getMaxImageCount()) {
         throw std::out_of_range("ImageCache bindless capacity exhausted");
     }
@@ -122,5 +145,6 @@ void ImageCache::destroyImages() {
         gfxDevice.destroyImage(image);
     }
     images.clear();
+    freeIds->clear();
     loadedImagesInfo.clear();
 }
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/Caches/MaterialCache.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/Caches/MaterialCache.cpp
index 1f845e3..acabe4e 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/Caches/MaterialCache.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/Caches/MaterialCache.cpp
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-#include <../../include/destrum/Graphics/Caches/MaterialCache.h>
+#include <destrum/Graphics/Caches/MaterialCache.h>
 
 #include <destrum/Graphics/GfxDevice.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Util.h>
@@ -19,7 +19,8 @@ void MaterialCache::init(
 
         materialDataBuffer = gfxDevice.createBuffer(
             MAX_MATERIALS * sizeof(MaterialData),
-            VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_SHADER_DEVICE_ADDRESS_BIT,
+            VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_SHADER_DEVICE_ADDRESS_BIT |
+                VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT,
             VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_CPU_TO_GPU);
 
         vkutil::addDebugLabel(
@@ -51,12 +52,6 @@ void MaterialCache::cleanup(GfxDevice& gfxDevice)
 
 MaterialID MaterialCache::addMaterial(Material material)
 {
-    if (!materials.empty() && device != nullptr) {
-        // The material buffer is shared by all in-flight frames. A newly
-        // appended entry may be written while an older frame is reading it.
-        device->waitIdle();
-    }
-
     MaterialData* data = static_cast<MaterialData*>(materialDataBuffer.info.pMappedData);
 
     const auto id = getFreeMaterialId();
@@ -67,17 +62,14 @@ MaterialID MaterialCache::addMaterial(Material material)
         throw std::runtime_error("MaterialCache material buffer is not mapped");
     }
 
+    // Safe without waiting: no frame in flight can reference an id that didn't exist yet.
+    // Changing an existing material goes through GameRenderer::updateMaterialGPU.
     data[id] = toMaterialData(material);
     device->getMemoryManager().flushAllocation(
         materialDataBuffer,
         static_cast<VkDeviceSize>(id) * sizeof(MaterialData),
         sizeof(MaterialData));
 
-    // The caller may update multiple materials in one frame; the range flush is
-    // cheap for coherent allocations and required for non-coherent memory.
-    // The cache does not own a device reference, so the renderer flushes the
-    // exact range after batching updates.
-
     const auto materialId = static_cast<MaterialID>(materials.size());
     std::string key;
     if (!material.assetReference.empty()) {
@@ -210,17 +202,8 @@ Material& MaterialCache::getMaterialMutable(MaterialID id)
     return materials.at(id);
 }
 
-void MaterialCache::updateMaterialGPU(MaterialID id)
+MaterialData MaterialCache::getMaterialData(MaterialID id) const
 {
     assert(id < materials.size());
-    assert(materialDataBuffer.info.pMappedData && "materialDataBuffer must be mapped");
-
-    MaterialData* data =
-        reinterpret_cast<MaterialData*>(materialDataBuffer.info.pMappedData);
-
-    data[id] = toMaterialData(materials[id]);
-    device->getMemoryManager().flushAllocation(
-        materialDataBuffer,
-        static_cast<VkDeviceSize>(id) * sizeof(MaterialData),
-        sizeof(MaterialData));
+    return toMaterialData(materials[id]);
 }
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/DeletionQueue.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/DeletionQueue.cpp
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c945cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/DeletionQueue.cpp
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+#include <destrum/Graphics/DeletionQueue.h>
+
+#include <cassert>
+#include <exception>
+
+#include <spdlog/spdlog.h>
+
+void DeletionQueue::push(std::uint64_t retiredInFrame, std::function<void()>&& deleter)
+{
+    // entries stay sorted by frame, flush only has to look at the front
+    assert(entries.empty() || entries.back().frame <= retiredInFrame);
+    entries.push_back(Entry{retiredInFrame, std::move(deleter)});
+}
+
+void DeletionQueue::flush(std::uint64_t lastCompletedFrame)
+{
+    while (!entries.empty() && entries.front().frame <= lastCompletedFrame) {
+        auto deleter = std::move(entries.front().deleter);
+        entries.pop_front();
+        try {
+            deleter();
+        } catch (const std::exception& e) {
+            spdlog::error("DeletionQueue: deleter threw: {}", e.what());
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+void DeletionQueue::flushAll()
+{
+    while (!entries.empty()) {
+        auto deleter = std::move(entries.front().deleter);
+        entries.pop_front();
+        try {
+            deleter();
+        } catch (const std::exception& e) {
+            spdlog::error("DeletionQueue: deleter threw: {}", e.what());
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/GfxDevice.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/GfxDevice.cpp
index a51f0c9..2f4d124 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/GfxDevice.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/GfxDevice.cpp
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@
 
 #include <SDL2/SDL.h>
 #include <SDL2/SDL_vulkan.h>
+#include <memory>
 #include <stdexcept>
 
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Init.h>
@@ -83,6 +84,7 @@ void GfxDevice::cleanup() {
     if (instanceManager.getDevice() != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
         vkDeviceWaitIdle(instanceManager.getDevice());
     }
+    deletionQueue.flushAll();
 
     swapchain.cleanup(instanceManager.getDevice());
     frameManager.cleanup(instanceManager.getDevice());
@@ -103,7 +105,6 @@ bool GfxDevice::recreateSwapchain(int width, int height) {
     if (width <= 0 || height <= 0) {
         throw std::invalid_argument("GfxDevice::recreateSwapchain requires a non-zero extent");
     }
-    waitIdle();
 
     const bool recreated = swapchain.recreateSwapchain(
         instanceManager.getDevice(),
@@ -129,6 +130,16 @@ VkCommandBuffer GfxDevice::beginFrame()
         swapchain.beginFrame(instanceManager.getDevice(), frameIndex);
     }
 
+    {
+        ZoneScopedN("Flush Deletion Queue");
+        // The fence we just waited on belongs to frame N - FRAMES_IN_FLIGHT, and the
+        // queue executes submits in order, so everything retired up to that frame is free.
+        const auto frameNumber = frameManager.getFrameNumber();
+        if (frameNumber >= FRAMES_IN_FLIGHT) {
+            deletionQueue.flush(frameNumber - FRAMES_IN_FLIGHT);
+        }
+    }
+
     const auto acquire = swapchain.acquireNextImage(instanceManager.getDevice(), frameIndex);
     if (!acquire.hasImage()) {
         return VK_NULL_HANDLE;
@@ -240,8 +251,39 @@ void GfxDevice::endFrame(VkCommandBuffer cmd, const GPUImage& drawImage, const E
     FrameMark;
 }
 
+void GfxDevice::deferDestroy(std::function<void()>&& deleter) {
+    if (!initialized) {
+        deleter();
+        return;
+    }
+    // Tagged with the frame being recorded (or the next one, between frames); any
+    // frame up to and including it may still reference the resource.
+    deletionQueue.push(frameManager.getFrameNumber(), std::move(deleter));
+}
+
+void GfxDevice::destroyBuffer(GPUBuffer& buffer) {
+    if (buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
+        buffer = {};
+        return;
+    }
+    deferDestroy([this, retired = buffer]() mutable {
+        memoryManager.destroyBuffer(retired);
+    });
+    buffer = {};
+}
+
+void GfxDevice::destroyImage(GPUImage& image) {
+    if (image.image == VK_NULL_HANDLE && image.imageView == VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
+        return;
+    }
+    auto retired = std::make_shared<GPUImage>(std::move(image));
+    deferDestroy([this, retired] {
+        imageManager.destroyImage(*retired);
+    });
+}
+
 void GfxDevice::waitIdle() {
-    frameManager.waitIdle();
+    instanceManager.waitIdle();
 }
 
 void GfxDevice::immediateSubmit(ImmediateExecuteFunction&& f) const {
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/Managers/FrameManager.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/Managers/FrameManager.cpp
index d42cae3..3b5291d 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/Managers/FrameManager.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/Managers/FrameManager.cpp
@@ -83,9 +83,3 @@ void FrameManager::nextFrame() {
     frameNumber++;
     FrameMark;
 }
-
-void FrameManager::waitIdle() const {
-    if (device != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
-        VK_CHECK(vkDeviceWaitIdle(device));
-    }
-}
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/MeshCache.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/MeshCache.cpp
index 8793ade..d558b2a 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/MeshCache.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/MeshCache.cpp
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-#include <../../include/destrum/Graphics/Caches/MeshCache.h>
+#include <destrum/Graphics/Caches/MeshCache.h>
 
 #include <destrum/Graphics/Resources/Mesh.h>
 #include <destrum/Graphics/GfxDevice.h>
@@ -136,11 +136,11 @@ void MeshCache::uploadMesh(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const CPUMesh& cpuMesh, GPUMesh
         vkCmdPipelineBarrier2(cmd, &destinationDependency);
         });
     } catch (...) {
-        gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(vertexIndexStaging);
+        gfxDevice.destroyBufferNow(vertexIndexStaging);
         throw;
     }
 
-    gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(vertexIndexStaging);
+    gfxDevice.destroyBufferNow(vertexIndexStaging);
 
     const auto vtxBufferName = cpuMesh.name + " (vtx)";
     const auto idxBufferName = cpuMesh.name + " (idx)";
@@ -205,16 +205,16 @@ void MeshCache::uploadMesh(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const CPUMesh& cpuMesh, GPUMesh
             vkCmdPipelineBarrier2(cmd, &destinationDependency);
             });
         } catch (...) {
-            gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(skinningStaging);
+            gfxDevice.destroyBufferNow(skinningStaging);
             throw;
         }
 
-        gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(skinningStaging);
+        gfxDevice.destroyBufferNow(skinningStaging);
         }
     } catch (...) {
-        gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(gpuMesh.skinningDataBuffer);
-        gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(gpuMesh.vertexBuffer);
-        gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(gpuMesh.indexBuffer);
+        gfxDevice.destroyBufferNow(gpuMesh.skinningDataBuffer);
+        gfxDevice.destroyBufferNow(gpuMesh.vertexBuffer);
+        gfxDevice.destroyBufferNow(gpuMesh.indexBuffer);
         gpuMesh = {};
         throw;
     }
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/ImguiPass.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/ImguiPass.cpp
index 4cc98b4..8fbcbd8 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/ImguiPass.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/ImguiPass.cpp
@@ -242,10 +242,6 @@ void ImguiPass::cleanup() {
         return;
     }
 
-    if (gfx != nullptr && gfx->getVkDevice() != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
-        vkDeviceWaitIdle(gfx->getVkDevice());
-    }
-
     if (vulkanInitialized) {
         releaseAllTextures();
         ImGui_ImplVulkan_Shutdown();
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/LightCullingPipeline.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/LightCullingPipeline.cpp
index e0889e0..19573f0 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/LightCullingPipeline.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/LightCullingPipeline.cpp
@@ -100,8 +100,6 @@ void LightCullingPipeline::cleanup(GfxDevice& gfxDevice)
 
 void LightCullingPipeline::resize(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, glm::ivec2 drawImageSize)
 {
-    gfxDevice.waitIdle();
-
     gfxDevice.destroyBuffer(tileLightIndicesBuffer);
     tileLightIndicesBuffer = {};
     createTileBuffer(gfxDevice, drawImageSize);
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/LineRenderingPass.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/LineRenderingPass.cpp
index 02c6e23..2e93559 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/LineRenderingPass.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/LineRenderingPass.cpp
@@ -221,7 +221,6 @@ void LineRenderingPass::ensureVertexCapacity(
         newCapacity *= 2;
     }
 
-    gfxDevice.waitIdle();
     vertexBuffer.cleanup(gfxDevice);
     vertexBuffer.init(
         gfxDevice,
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/Renderer2DPass.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/Renderer2DPass.cpp
index 85081da..93072ad 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/Renderer2DPass.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/Pipelines/Renderer2DPass.cpp
@@ -210,7 +210,6 @@ void Renderer2DPass::ensureCapacity(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, std::size_t requiredSh
         newCapacity *= 2;
     }
 
-    gfxDevice.waitIdle();
     shapeBuffer.cleanup(gfxDevice);
     shapeBuffer.init(gfxDevice, ShapeBufferUsage, newCapacity * sizeof(Shape2D), "2d shapes");
     shapeCapacity = newCapacity;
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/RenderResources.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/RenderResources.cpp
index 4924304..f55b05f 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/RenderResources.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/RenderResources.cpp
@@ -204,6 +204,10 @@ ImageID RenderResources::addImageToCache(GPUImage image) {
     return imageCache->addImage(std::move(image));
 }
 
+void RenderResources::destroyImage(ImageID id) {
+    imageCache->removeImage(id);
+}
+
 void RenderResources::loadModelAsset(
     GfxDevice& gfxDevice,
     std::string_view sourceReference)
@@ -322,8 +326,6 @@ void RenderResources::cleanup(GfxDevice& gfxDevice)
         return;
     }
 
-    gfxDevice.waitIdle();
-
     if (materialCache) {
         materialCache->cleanup(gfxDevice);
     }
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/Renderer.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/Renderer.cpp
index 6eeb0ba..c2699ae 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/Renderer.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/Renderer.cpp
@@ -65,7 +65,6 @@ void GameRenderer::init(GfxDevice& gfxDevice, RenderResources& _resources, glm::
 
 void GameRenderer::beginDrawing(GfxDevice& gfxDevice)
 {
-    flushMaterialUpdates(gfxDevice);
     meshDrawCommands.clear();
     skinningPipeline->beginDrawing(gfxDevice.getCurrentFrameIndex());
     lightCullingPipeline->beginDrawing(gfxDevice.getCurrentFrameIndex());
@@ -175,15 +174,10 @@ void GameRenderer::draw(VkCommandBuffer cmd, GfxDevice& gfxDevice, const Camera&
     };
 
     {
-        TracyVkZone(gfxDevice.getTracyVkCtx(), cmd, "Material Buffer Barrier");
-        vkutil::ScopedCmdLabel label(cmd, "Material Buffer Barrier", vkutil::labelColors::transfer);
+        TracyVkZone(gfxDevice.getTracyVkCtx(), cmd, "Material Updates");
+        vkutil::ScopedCmdLabel label(cmd, "Material Updates", vkutil::labelColors::transfer);
 
-        vkutil::bufferHostWriteToShaderReadBarrier(
-            cmd,
-            resources->materials().getMaterialDataBuffer().buffer,
-            0,
-            VK_WHOLE_SIZE
-        );
+        recordMaterialUpdates(cmd);
     }
 
     {
@@ -384,11 +378,6 @@ void GameRenderer::cleanup(GfxDevice& gfxDevice)
 {
     VkDevice device = gfxDevice.getDevice();
 
-    if (device != VK_NULL_HANDLE)
-    {
-        vkDeviceWaitIdle(device);
-    }
-
     if (skinningPipeline)
         skinningPipeline->cleanup(gfxDevice);
 
@@ -541,25 +530,32 @@ void GameRenderer::setSkyboxTexture(ImageID skyboxImageId)
     skyboxPipeline->setSkyboxImage(skyboxImageId);
 }
 
-void GameRenderer::flushMaterialUpdates(GfxDevice& gfxDevice)
+void GameRenderer::recordMaterialUpdates(VkCommandBuffer cmd)
 {
+    const VkBuffer materialBuffer = resources->materials().getMaterialDataBuffer().buffer;
+
     if (!pendingMaterialUploads.empty())
     {
-        // Material data is currently shared by all frame contexts. Wait before
-        // mutating it so an older in-flight frame cannot read the overwritten
-        // range. This can later be replaced with per-frame material buffers.
-        gfxDevice.waitIdle();
+        // Updates go through the command buffer instead of the mapped pointer: the
+        // copy then lands after earlier frames finished reading the old values,
+        // without the CPU having to wait for them.
+        vkutil::bufferShaderReadToTransferWriteBarrier(cmd, materialBuffer, 0, VK_WHOLE_SIZE);
+
+        for (MaterialID id : pendingMaterialUploads)
+        {
+            const MaterialData data = resources->materials().getMaterialData(id);
+            vkCmdUpdateBuffer(
+                cmd,
+                materialBuffer,
+                static_cast<VkDeviceSize>(id) * sizeof(MaterialData),
+                sizeof(MaterialData),
+                &data);
+        }
+        pendingMaterialUploads.clear();
     }
 
-    for (MaterialID id : pendingMaterialUploads)
-    {
-        resources->materials().updateMaterialGPU(id);
-        gfxDevice.getMemoryManager().flushAllocation(
-            resources->materials().getMaterialDataBuffer(),
-            static_cast<VkDeviceSize>(id) * sizeof(MaterialData),
-            sizeof(MaterialData));
-    }
-    pendingMaterialUploads.clear();
+    // newly added materials are written through the mapped pointer, updates by the copies above
+    vkutil::bufferHostAndTransferWriteToShaderReadBarrier(cmd, materialBuffer, 0, VK_WHOLE_SIZE);
 }
 
 void GameRenderer::createDrawImage(GfxDevice& gfxDevice,
@@ -589,8 +585,9 @@ void GameRenderer::createDrawImage(GfxDevice& gfxDevice,
             .samples = noMsaa,
         };
 
-        // reuse the same id if creating again
-        drawImageId = resources->createImage(gfxDevice, createImageInfo, "draw image", nullptr, drawImageId);
+        // a fresh bindless slot, the old one may still be read by frames in flight
+        resources->destroyImage(drawImageId);
+        drawImageId = resources->createImage(gfxDevice, createImageInfo, "draw image");
 
         if (firstCreate)
         {
@@ -609,7 +606,8 @@ void GameRenderer::createDrawImage(GfxDevice& gfxDevice,
             .samples = noMsaa,
         };
 
-        depthImageId = resources->createImage(gfxDevice, createInfo, "depth image", nullptr, depthImageId);
+        resources->destroyImage(depthImageId);
+        depthImageId = resources->createImage(gfxDevice, createInfo, "depth image");
         spdlog::info("Created depth image with id {}", depthImageId);
     }
 }
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/Resources/Cubemap.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/Resources/Cubemap.cpp
index 73b0f6c..6904ca2 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/Resources/Cubemap.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/Resources/Cubemap.cpp
@@ -262,7 +262,7 @@ void CubeMap::CreateCubeMap(
                 vkDestroyImageView(gfxDevice.getDevice(), view, nullptr);
             }
         }
-        gfxDevice.destroyImage(cubeMapImage);
+        gfxDevice.destroyImageNow(cubeMapImage);
         throw;
     }
 }
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/Swapchain.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/Swapchain.cpp
index 863aa17..eec741e 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/Swapchain.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/Swapchain.cpp
@@ -134,6 +134,8 @@ bool Swapchain::recreateSwapchain(
     surface = surf;
 
     {
+        // Resizing is rare, and the old swapchain (plus its views and the renderer's
+        // size-dependent images) can't be destroyed while a present may still use it.
         ZoneScopedN("vkDeviceWaitIdle");
         vkDeviceWaitIdle(vkbDevice);
     }
diff --git a/destrum/src/Graphics/Util.cpp b/destrum/src/Graphics/Util.cpp
index 0b77afd..d957fd7 100644
--- a/destrum/src/Graphics/Util.cpp
+++ b/destrum/src/Graphics/Util.cpp
@@ -165,6 +165,46 @@ void vkutil::bufferHostWriteToShaderReadBarrier(
     vkCmdPipelineBarrier2(cmd, &dep);
 }
 
+void vkutil::bufferShaderReadToTransferWriteBarrier(
+    VkCommandBuffer cmd, VkBuffer buffer, VkDeviceSize offset, VkDeviceSize size) {
+    VkBufferMemoryBarrier2 barrier{VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER_2};
+    barrier.srcStageMask = VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_VERTEX_SHADER_BIT |
+                           VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_FRAGMENT_SHADER_BIT |
+                           VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_COMPUTE_SHADER_BIT;
+    barrier.srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_2_SHADER_READ_BIT;
+    barrier.dstStageMask = VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_TRANSFER_BIT;
+    barrier.dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_2_TRANSFER_WRITE_BIT;
+    barrier.buffer = buffer;
+    barrier.offset = offset;
+    barrier.size = size;
+
+    VkDependencyInfo dep{VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_DEPENDENCY_INFO};
+    dep.bufferMemoryBarrierCount = 1;
+    dep.pBufferMemoryBarriers = &barrier;
+
+    vkCmdPipelineBarrier2(cmd, &dep);
+}
+
+void vkutil::bufferHostAndTransferWriteToShaderReadBarrier(
+    VkCommandBuffer cmd, VkBuffer buffer, VkDeviceSize offset, VkDeviceSize size) {
+    VkBufferMemoryBarrier2 barrier{VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER_2};
+    barrier.srcStageMask = VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_HOST_BIT | VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_TRANSFER_BIT;
+    barrier.srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_2_HOST_WRITE_BIT | VK_ACCESS_2_TRANSFER_WRITE_BIT;
+    barrier.dstStageMask = VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_VERTEX_SHADER_BIT |
+                           VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_FRAGMENT_SHADER_BIT |
+                           VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_2_COMPUTE_SHADER_BIT;
+    barrier.dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_2_SHADER_READ_BIT;
+    barrier.buffer = buffer;
+    barrier.offset = offset;
+    barrier.size = size;
+
+    VkDependencyInfo dep{VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_DEPENDENCY_INFO};
+    dep.bufferMemoryBarrierCount = 1;
+    dep.pBufferMemoryBarriers = &barrier;
+
+    vkCmdPipelineBarrier2(cmd, &dep);
+}
+
 void vkutil::bufferHostWriteToTransferReadBarrier(
     VkCommandBuffer cmd,
     VkBuffer buffer,
diff --git a/lightkeeper/src/Lightkeeper.cpp b/lightkeeper/src/Lightkeeper.cpp
index e135f68..d8f5d60 100644
--- a/lightkeeper/src/Lightkeeper.cpp
+++ b/lightkeeper/src/Lightkeeper.cpp
@@ -171,8 +171,6 @@ void LightKeeper::customDraw()
 
 void LightKeeper::customCleanup()
 {
-    gfxDevice.waitIdle();
-
     SceneManager::GetInstance().Destroy();
 
     if (skyboxCubemap)